It’s unclear when most of my ancestors became American citizens. Some immigrated to the U.S. before the American Revolution, while others arrived as late as 1917. The laws about who could become a citizen and their rights varied since the country’s first law regulating the naturalization of immigrants. The Naturalization Act of 1790 restricted citizenship to “white persons” who lived in the U.S. for two years and were of “good moral character.” 1
Naturalization laws have changed many times in American history, often imposing limitations based on ethnicity, race, and to some extent, sex. While any court of record could grant citizenship, judges in different jurisdictions often had varying interpretations of who qualified as “white.” 2 A “common understanding” of a person’s race or ethnicity changed over time, and of who belonged in the United States. 3 Because my ancestors were white and of northern European descent, they largely avoided these barriers.
That said, finding naturalization records for my ancestors has been challenging. Several factors might explain this:
- Some ancestors immigrated before naturalization laws were established
- For others, citizenship may not have been pursued since it wasn’t required
- The costs associated with naturalization might have been prohibitive
- Records could still be hidden in courthouses or archives I haven’t yet explored
Alfred Knowles
However, I do have naturalization records for my great-grandfather, Alfred Knowles. Our family still holds two important documents: Alfred’s application for a replacement certificate and a Certificate of Citizenship issued to him in 1935. The certificate provides a physical description of Alfred, his residence, and the date of naturalization. The Kings County Court in Brooklyn, New York, naturalized him on 18 December 1897. 4 I also found his original naturalization records online, which include his petition, oath, and other court documents.
Alfred, born in England in 1868, immigrated to the United States sometime before 1892. 5 He claimed in his petition that he arrived in New York on 6 April 1883. 6 However, I haven’t found any passenger records for him, nor have I located him in the 1892 census or in city directories. However, census records suggest he immigrated between 1885 and 1890. 7 The earliest record I’ve found is his marriage certificate, showing he married Maggie [Margaret] Flood, an Irish immigrant, on 19 June 1892, in Brooklyn, New York. 8
Assuming his date of arrival is accurate, Alfred left England for the U.S. at age 15. It makes me wonder— what motivated him to leave England so young? Was he sending money back to his family, escaping an unhappy home, or simply seeking a new adventure?
Alfred’s wife, Margaret, automatically became a citizen upon his naturalization, as her status was tied to their marriage. 9 Naturalization for women was more complex. Since they couldn’t vote and had fewer rights, women seldom pursued citizenship independently. 10 Margaret could have applied before marriage, but after marrying, most courts would have denied her the right to naturalize on her own. 11 As a result, Margaret didn’t have to meet the requirements of naturalization, file a petition, or take an oath. Her husband’s citizenship papers and their marriage certificate were the only proof of her citizenship. 12
The couple’s first two children, Alfred and Viola, were born in the U.S. before Alfred’s naturalization. The 14th Amendment ratified in 1868, grants citizenship to anyone born on U.S. soil, making them citizens at birth. 13
While many immigrant groups faced barriers under early naturalization laws, Alfred experienced a different reality. Unlike Chinese/Asian immigrants or Native Americans who were barred from becoming citizens in the 1890s, Alfred’s path to naturalization highlights the more accessible aspects of the law for some at that time. 14
My great-grandfather’s naturalization in 1897 was one story in a long and complex history of American citizenship. It wasn’t until 1952 that Congress passed legislation prohibiting naturalization denials based on race, sex, or marital status, signaling a more inclusive vision of American citizenship. While the exact details of how and when my other ancestors became citizens may remain unknown, the search for their records continues, and with it, the hope of uncovering more pieces of my family’s American story.